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Born February 15, 1861 ( 1861-02-15) Ramsgate, Isle of Thanet, Kent, England Died December 30, 1947 ( 1947-12-30) (aged 86) Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States Web,,, Alfred North Whitehead (1861–1947) was a British mathematician, logician and philosopher best known for his work in mathematical logic and the philosophy of science. In collaboration with Bertrand Russell, he co-authored the three-volume Principia Mathematica (1910, 1912, 1913).
May 18, 2017. Alfred North Whitehead was a famous British Mathematician, who co-authored the historical 'Principia Mathematica' with Bertrand Russell. Check out this biography to know about his childhood, family life, achievements and fun facts about his life.
Later he was instrumental in pioneering the approach to metaphysics now known as process philosophy, which today has found application in a wide variety of disciplines, including ecology, theology, education, physics, biology, economics, psychology, and media theory, among other areas.
,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, Signature Alfred North Whitehead (15 February 1861 – 30 December 1947) was an English mathematician and philosopher. He is best known as the defining figure of the philosophical school known as, which today has found application to a wide variety of disciplines, including ecology, theology, education, physics, biology, economics, and psychology, among other areas.
In his early career Whitehead wrote primarily on mathematics, logic, and physics. His most notable work in these fields is the three-volume (1910–13), which he wrote with former student. Principia Mathematica is considered one of the twentieth century's most important works in mathematical logic, and placed 23rd in a list of the top 100 English-language nonfiction books of the twentieth century. Beginning in the late 1910s and early 1920s, Whitehead gradually turned his attention from mathematics to, and finally to.
He developed a comprehensive metaphysical system which radically departed from most of. Whitehead argued that reality consists of rather than material objects, and that processes are best defined by their relations with other processes, thus rejecting the theory that reality is fundamentally constructed by bits of matter that exist independently of one another.
Today Whitehead's philosophical works – particularly – are regarded as the foundational texts of process philosophy. Whitehead's process philosophy argues that 'there is urgency in coming to see the world as a web of interrelated processes of which we are integral parts, so that all of our choices and actions have consequences for the world around us.' For this reason, one of the most promising applications of Whitehead's thought in recent years has been in the area of and pioneered. Whewell's Court north range at,. Whitehead spent thirty years at Trinity, five as a student and twenty-five as a senior lecturer.
Alfred North Whitehead was born in,, England, in 1861. His father, Alfred Whitehead, was a minister and schoolmaster of, a school for boys established by Thomas Whitehead, Alfred North's grandfather. Whitehead himself recalled both of them as being very successful schoolmasters, but that his grandfather was the more extraordinary man. Whitehead's mother was Maria Sarah Whitehead, formerly Maria Sarah Buckmaster.
Whitehead was apparently not particularly close with his mother, as he never mentioned her in any of his writings, and there is evidence that Whitehead's wife, Evelyn, had a low opinion of her. Whitehead was educated at,, then considered one of the best in the country.
His childhood was described as over-protected, but when at school he excelled in sports and mathematics and was head of his class. In 1880, Whitehead began attending, and studied mathematics. His academic advisor was. He earned his BA from Trinity in 1884, and graduated as fourth. Career [ ] Elected a of Trinity in 1884, Whitehead would teach and write on and at the college until 1910, spending the 1890s writing his Treatise on Universal Algebra (1898), and the 1900s collaborating with his former pupil,, on the first edition of. In 1890, Whitehead married Evelyn Wade, an Irish woman raised in France; they had a daughter, Jessie Whitehead, and two sons, and Eric Whitehead. Eric Whitehead died in action while serving in the during World War I at the age of 19.
Russell was a student of Whitehead's at Trinity College, and a longtime collaborator and friend. In 1910, Whitehead resigned his senior lectureship in mathematics at Trinity and moved to London without first lining up another job. After being unemployed for a year, Whitehead accepted a position as lecturer in applied mathematics and mechanics at, but was passed over a year later for the Goldsmid Chair of Applied Mathematics and Mechanics, a position for which he had hoped to be seriously considered. In 1914 Whitehead accepted a position as professor of applied mathematics at the newly chartered, where his old friend had recently been appointed chief professor of mathematics. In 1918 Whitehead's academic responsibilities began to seriously expand as he accepted a number of high administrative positions within the system, of which Imperial College London was a member at the time. He was elected dean of the Faculty of Science at the University of London in late 1918 (a post he held for four years), a member of the University of London's Senate in 1919, and chairman of the Senate's Academic (leadership) Council in 1920, a post which he held until he departed for America in 1924.
Whitehead was able to exert his newfound influence to successfully lobby for a new history of science department, help establish a Bachelor of Science degree (previously only Bachelor of Arts degrees had been offered), and make the school more accessible to less wealthy students. Toward the end of his time in England, Whitehead turned his attention to.
Though he had no advanced training in philosophy, his philosophical work soon became highly regarded. After publishing The Concept of Nature in 1920, he served as president of the from 1922 to 1923. Move to the US, 1924 [ ] In 1924, invited the 63-year-old Whitehead to join the faculty at as a professor of philosophy. During his time at Harvard, Whitehead produced his most important philosophical contributions. In 1925, he wrote Science and the Modern World, which was immediately hailed as an alternative to the that plagued popular science. Lectures from 1927–28, were published in 1929 as a book named, which has been compared (both in importance and difficulty) to 's.
The Whiteheads spent the rest of their lives in the United States. Alfred North retired from Harvard in 1937 and remained in until his death on 30 December 1947. The two volume biography of Whitehead by Victor Lowe is the most definitive presentation of the life of Whitehead. However, many details of Whitehead's life remain obscure because he left no; his family carried out his instructions that all of his papers be destroyed after his death.
Additionally, Whitehead was known for his 'almost fanatical belief in the right to privacy', and for writing very few personal letters of the kind that would help to gain insight on his life. This led to Lowe himself remarking on the first page of Whitehead's biography, 'No professional biographer in his right mind would touch him.' As of 2013, the of the is currently working on a critical edition of Whitehead's writings.
Mathematics and logic [ ] In addition to numerous articles on mathematics, Whitehead wrote three major books on the subject: A Treatise on Universal Algebra (1898), (co-written with and published in three volumes between 1910 and 1913), and An Introduction to Mathematics (1911). The former two books were aimed exclusively at professional, while the latter book was intended for a larger audience, covering the and its. Principia Mathematica in particular is regarded as one of the most important works in mathematical logic of the 20th century. In addition to his legacy as a co-writer of Principia Mathematica, Whitehead's theory of 'extensive abstraction' is considered foundational for the branch of and known as ', a theory describing among wholes, parts, parts of parts, and the between parts.
A Treatise on Universal Algebra [ ] In A Treatise on Universal Algebra (1898) the term ' had essentially the same meaning that it has today: the study of themselves, rather than examples ('models') of algebraic structures. Whitehead credits and as originators of the subject matter, and with coining the term itself. At the time structures such as and drew attention to the need to expand algebraic structures beyond the associatively multiplicative class. In a review wrote: 'The main idea of the work is not unification of the several methods, nor generalization of ordinary algebra so as to include them, but rather the comparative study of their several structures.' In a separate review, wrote, 'It possesses a unity of design which is really remarkable, considering the variety of its themes.' A Treatise on Universal Algebra sought to examine 's theory of extension ('Ausdehnungslehre'), 's algebra of logic, and Hamilton's (this last number system was to be taken up in Volume II, which was never finished due to Whitehead's work on Principia Mathematica). Whitehead wrote in the preface: 'Such algebras have an intrinsic value for separate detailed study; also they are worthy of comparative study, for the sake of the light thereby thrown on the general theory of symbolic reasoning, and on algebraic symbolism in particular.
The idea of a generalized conception of space has been made prominent, in the belief that the properties and operations involved in it can be made to form a uniform method of interpretation of the various algebras.' Whitehead, however, had no results of a general nature. His hope of 'form[ing] a uniform method of interpretation of the various algebras' presumably would have been developed in Volume II, had Whitehead completed it. Further work on the subject was minimal until the early 1930s, when and began publishing on universal algebras. Principia Mathematica [ ].
Richard Rummell's 1906 watercolor landscape view of Harvard University, facing northeast. Whitehead taught at Harvard from 1924 to 1937. Whitehead did not begin his career as a. In fact, he never had any formal training in philosophy beyond his. Early in his life he showed great interest in and respect for philosophy and, but it is evident that he considered himself a rank amateur. In one letter to his friend and former student, after discussing whether science aimed to be explanatory or merely descriptive, he wrote: 'This further question lands us in the ocean of metaphysic, onto which my profound ignorance of that science forbids me to enter.'
Ironically, in later life Whitehead would become one of the 20th century's foremost. However, interest in metaphysics – the philosophical investigation of the nature of the universe and existence – had become unfashionable by the time Whitehead began writing in earnest about it in the 1920s. The ever-more impressive accomplishments of science had led to a general consensus in academia that the development of comprehensive metaphysical systems was a waste of time because they were not subject to.
Whitehead was unimpressed by this objection. In the notes of one of his students for a 1927 class, Whitehead was quoted as saying: 'Every scientific man in order to preserve his reputation has to say he dislikes metaphysics. What he means is he dislikes having his metaphysics criticized.' In Whitehead's view, scientists and philosophers make metaphysical assumptions about how the universe works all the time, but such assumptions are not easily seen precisely because they remain unexamined and unquestioned. While Whitehead acknowledged that 'philosophers can never hope finally to formulate these metaphysical,' he argued that people need to continually re-imagine their basic assumptions about how the universe works if philosophy and science are to make any real progress, even if that progress remains permanently. For this reason Whitehead regarded metaphysical investigations as essential to both good science and good philosophy. Perhaps foremost among what Whitehead considered faulty metaphysical assumptions was the idea that reality is fundamentally constructed of bits of matter that exist totally independently of one another, which he rejected in favor of an -based or 'process' in which events are primary and are fundamentally interrelated and dependent on one another.
He also argued that the most basic elements of reality can all be regarded as experiential, indeed that everything is constituted by its. He used the term 'experience' very broadly, so that even inanimate processes such as electron collisions are said to manifest some degree of experience.
In this, he went against Descartes' separation of two different kinds of real existence, either exclusively material or else exclusively mental. Whitehead referred to his metaphysical system as 'philosophy of organism', but it would become known more widely as '.'
Whitehead's philosophy was highly original, and soon garnered interest in philosophical circles. After publishing The Concept of Nature in 1920, he served as president of the from 1922 to 1923, and was quoted as saying that Whitehead was 'the best philosopher writing in English.' So impressive and different was Whitehead's philosophy that in 1924 he was invited to join the faculty at as a professor of philosophy at 63 years of age. Eckhart Hall at the.
Beginning with the arrival of in 1927, Chicago's become closely associated with Whitehead's thought for about thirty years. This is not to say that Whitehead's thought was widely accepted or even well understood. His philosophical work is generally considered to be among the most difficult to understand in all of the. Even professional philosophers struggled to follow Whitehead's writings.
One famous story illustrating the level of difficulty of Whitehead's philosophy centers around the delivery of Whitehead's in 1927–28 – following 's lectures of the year previous – which Whitehead would later publish as: Eddington was a marvellous popular lecturer who had enthralled an audience of 600 for his entire course. The same audience turned up to Whitehead's first lecture but it was completely unintelligible, not merely to the world at large but to the elect. My father remarked to me afterwards that if he had not known Whitehead well he would have suspected that it was an imposter making it up as he went along.
The audience at subsequent lectures was only about half a dozen in all. Indeed, it may not be inappropriate to speculate that some fair portion of the respect generally shown to Whitehead by his philosophical peers at the time arose from their sheer bafflement. Distinguished once remarked of Whitehead's 1926 book Religion in the Making: 'It is infuriating, and I must say embarrassing as well, to read page after page of relatively familiar words without understanding a single sentence.' However, Mathews' frustration with Whitehead's books did not negatively affect his interest. In fact, there were numerous philosophers and theologians at Chicago's Divinity School that perceived the importance of what Whitehead was doing without fully grasping all of the details and implications. In 1927 they invited one of America's only Whitehead experts – – to Chicago to give a lecture explaining Whitehead's thought.
Wieman's lecture was so brilliant that he was promptly hired to the faculty and taught there for twenty years, and for at least thirty years afterward Chicago's Divinity School was closely associated with Whitehead's thought. Shortly after Whitehead's book appeared in 1929, Wieman famously wrote in his 1930 review: 'Not many people will read Whitehead's recent book in this generation; not many will read it in any generation. But its influence will radiate through concentric circles of popularization until the common man will think and work in the light of it, not knowing whence the light came. After a few decades of discussion and analysis one will be able to understand it more readily than can now be done.'
Wieman's words proved prophetic. Though Process and Reality has been called 'arguably the most impressive single metaphysical text of the twentieth century,' it has been little-read and little-understood, partly because it demands – as Isabelle Stengers puts it – 'that its readers accept the adventure of the questions that will separate them from every consensus.' Whitehead questioned western philosophy's most dearly held assumptions about how the universe works, but in doing so he managed to anticipate a number of 21st century scientific and philosophical problems and provide novel solutions. Whitehead's conception of reality [ ] Whitehead was convinced that the scientific notion of was misleading as a way of describing the ultimate nature of things.
In his 1925 book Science and the Modern World, he wrote that 'There persists. [a] fixed scientific which presupposes the ultimate fact of an irreducible brute, or material, spread through space in a flux of configurations. In itself such a material is senseless, valueless, purposeless. It just does what it does do, following a fixed routine imposed by external relations which do not spring from the nature of its being. It is this assumption that I call 'scientific materialism.' Also it is an assumption which I shall challenge as being entirely unsuited to the scientific situation at which we have now arrived.' In Whitehead's view, there are a number of problems with this notion of 'irreducible brute matter.'
First, it obscures and minimizes the importance of change. By thinking of any material thing (like a rock, or a person) as being fundamentally the same thing throughout time, with any changes to it being secondary to its ', scientific materialism hides the fact that nothing ever stays the same. For Whitehead, change is fundamental and inescapable; he emphasizes that 'all things flow.' In Whitehead's view, then, concepts such as 'quality', 'matter', and 'form' are problematic. These 'classical' concepts fail to adequately account for change, and overlook the active and experiential nature of the most basic elements of the world. They are useful, but are not the world's basic building blocks. What is ordinarily conceived of as a single person, for instance, is philosophically described as a continuum of overlapping.
After all, people change all the time, if only because they have aged by another second and had some further experience. These occasions of experience are logically distinct, but are progressively connected in what Whitehead calls a 'society' of events. By assuming that enduring objects are the most real and fundamental things in the universe, materialists have mistaken the abstract for the (what Whitehead calls the '). To put it another way, a thing or person is often seen as having a 'defining ' or a 'core ' that is unchanging, and describes what the thing or person really is. In this way of thinking, things and people are seen as fundamentally the same through time, with any changes being qualitative and secondary to their core identity (e.g. 'Mark's hair has turned gray as he has gotten older, but he is still the same person'). But in Whitehead's cosmology, the only fundamentally existent things are discrete 'occasions of experience' that overlap one another in time and space, and jointly make up the enduring person or thing.
On the other hand, what ordinary thinking often regards as 'the essence of a thing' or 'the identity/core of a person' is an abstract generalization of what is regarded as that person or thing's most important or salient features across time. Identities do not define people, people define identities. Everything changes from moment to moment, and to think of anything as having an 'enduring essence' misses the fact that 'all things flow', though it is often a useful way of speaking. Whitehead pointed to the limitations of language as one of the main culprits in maintaining a materialistic way of thinking, and acknowledged that it may be difficult to ever wholly move past such ideas in everyday speech. After all, each moment of each person's life can hardly be given a different proper name, and it is easy and convenient to think of people and objects as remaining fundamentally the same things, rather than constantly keeping in mind that each thing is a different thing from what it was a moment ago.
Yet the limitations of everyday living and everyday speech should not prevent people from realizing that 'material substances' or 'essences' are a convenient generalized description of a continuum of particular, concrete processes. No one questions that a ten-year-old person is quite different by the time he or she turns thirty years old, and in many ways is not the same person at all; Whitehead points out that it is not philosophically or sound to think that a person is the same from one second to the next. Was one of Whitehead's primary influences. In the preface to, Whitehead wrote: 'The writer who most fully anticipated the main positions of the is John Locke in his.' A second problem with materialism is that it obscures the importance of relations.
It sees every object as distinct and discrete from all other objects. Each object is simply an inert clump of matter that is only externally related to other things. The idea of matter as primary makes people think of objects as being fundamentally separate in time and space, and not necessarily related to anything. But in Whitehead's view, relations take a primary role, perhaps even more important than the relata themselves. A student taking notes in one of Whitehead's fall 1924 classes wrote that: 'Reality applies to connections, and only relatively to the things connected. (A) is real for (B), and (B) is real for (A), but [they are] not absolutely real independent of each other.' In fact, Whitehead describes any entity as in some sense nothing more and nothing less than the sum of its relations to other entities – its synthesis of and reaction to the world around it.
A real thing is just that which forces the rest of the to in some way conform to it; that is to say, if theoretically a thing made strictly no difference to any other entity (i.e. It was not related to any other entity), it could not be said to really exist.
Relations are not secondary to what a thing is, they are what the thing is. It must be emphasized [ ], however, that an entity is not merely a sum of its relations, but also a valuation of them and reaction to them. For Whitehead, is the absolute principle of existence, and every entity (whether it is a human being, a tree, or an ) has some degree of novelty in how it responds to other entities, and is not fully determined by or laws. Of course, most entities do not have. As a human being's actions cannot always be predicted, the same can be said of where a tree's roots will grow, or how an electron will move, or whether it will rain tomorrow. Moreover, inability to predict an electron's movement (for instance) is not due to faulty understanding or inadequate technology; rather, the fundamental creativity/freedom of all entities means that there will always remain phenomena that are unpredictable.
The other side of creativity/freedom as the absolute principle is that every entity is constrained by the social structure of existence (i.e., its relations) – each actual entity must conform to the settled conditions of the world around it. Freedom always exists within limits. But an entity's uniqueness and individuality arise from its own self-determination as to just how it will take account of the world within the limits that have been set for it. In summary, Whitehead rejects the idea of separate and unchanging bits of matter as the most basic building blocks of reality, in favor of the idea of reality as interrelated events in process.
He conceives of reality as composed of processes of dynamic 'becoming' rather than static 'being', emphasizing that all physical things change and evolve, and that changeless 'essences' such as matter are mere abstractions from the interrelated events that are the final real things that make up the world. Theory of perception [ ] Since Whitehead's described a universe in which all entities, he needed a new way of describing that was not limited to living, beings. The term he coined was 'prehension', which comes from the Latin prehensio, meaning 'to seize.'
The term is meant to indicate a kind of perception that can be conscious or unconscious, applying to people as well as. It is also intended to make clear Whitehead's rejection of the theory of representative perception, in which the only has private ideas about other entities.
For Whitehead, the term 'prehension' indicates that the perceiver actually incorporates aspects of the perceived thing into itself. In this way, entities are constituted by their perceptions and relations, rather than being independent of them. Further, Whitehead regards perception as occurring in two modes, causal efficacy (or 'physical prehension') and presentational immediacy (or 'conceptual prehension'). Whitehead describes causal efficacy as 'the experience dominating the primitive living organisms, which have a sense for the fate from which they have emerged, and the fate towards which they go.'
It is, in other words, the sense of relations between entities, a feeling of being influenced and affected by the surrounding environment, unmediated by the. Presentational immediacy, on the other hand, is what is usually referred to as 'pure sense perception', unmediated by any causal or, even interpretation.
In other words, it is pure appearance, which may or may not be delusive (e.g. Mistaking an image in a mirror for 'the real thing'). In higher organisms (like people), these two modes of perception combine into what Whitehead terms 'symbolic reference', which links appearance with causation in a process that is so automatic that both people and animals have difficulty refraining from it. By way of illustration, Whitehead uses the example of a person's encounter with a chair. An ordinary person looks up, sees a colored shape, and immediately infers that it is a chair. However, an artist, Whitehead supposes, 'might not have jumped to the notion of a chair', but instead 'might have stopped at the mere contemplation of a beautiful color and a beautiful shape.'
This is not the normal human reaction; most people place objects in categories by habit and instinct, without even thinking about it. Moreover, animals do the same thing. Using the same example, Whitehead points out that a dog 'would have acted immediately on the hypothesis of a chair and would have jumped onto it by way of using it as such.'
In this way symbolic reference is a fusion of pure sense perceptions on the one hand and causal relations on the other, and that it is in fact the causal relationships that dominate the more basic mentality (as the dog illustrates), while it is the sense perceptions which indicate a higher grade mentality (as the artist illustrates). Evolution and value [ ] Whitehead believed that when asking questions about the basic facts of existence, questions about can never be fully escaped. This is borne out in his thoughts on, or the hypothetical natural process by which life arises from simple organic compounds. Whitehead makes the startling observation that 'life is comparatively deficient in survival value.'
If humans can only exist for about a hundred years, and rocks for eight hundred million, then one is forced to ask why complex organisms ever evolved in the first place; as Whitehead humorously notes, 'they certainly did not appear because they were better at that game than the rocks around them.' He then observes that the mark of higher forms of life is that they are actively engaged in modifying their environment, an activity which he theorizes is directed toward the three-fold goal of living, living well, and living better. In other words, Whitehead sees life as directed toward the purpose of increasing its own satisfaction. Without such a goal, he sees the rise of life as totally unintelligible. For Whitehead, there is no such thing as wholly inert.
Instead, all things have some measure of freedom or, however small, which allows them to be at least partly self-directed. Coined the term ' (the idea that all entities experience) to describe Whitehead's view, and to distinguish it from (the idea that all matter has ). Rescher is a proponent of both Whiteheadian and American. Historically Whitehead's work has been most influential in the field of. The most important early proponent of Whitehead's thought in a context was, who spent a semester at as Whitehead's teaching assistant in 1925, and is widely credited with developing Whitehead's into a full-blown. Other notable process theologians include, Jr.,,,,, and.
Process theology typically stresses God's relational nature. Rather than seeing God as or emotionless, process theologians view God as 'the fellow sufferer who understands', and as the being who is supremely affected by temporal events. Hartshorne points out that people would not praise a human ruler who was unaffected by either the joys or sorrows of his followers – so why would this be a praise-worthy quality in God? Instead, as the being who is most affected by the world, God is the being who can most appropriately respond to the world. However, process theology has been formulated in a wide variety of ways. Robert Mesle, for instance, advocates a 'process naturalism', i.e. A process theology without God.
In fact, process theology is difficult to define because process theologians are so diverse and in their views and interests. Is a process theologian who has also written books on biology and economics. Roland Faber and Catherine Keller integrate Whitehead with,, and theory. Was both a theologian and a. Writes on theology and political theory.
In Syntheism - Creating God in The Internet Age, futurologists and repeatedly credit Whitehead for the process theology they see rising out of the expected to dominate the digital era. Process philosophy is even more difficult to pin down than process theology. In practice, the two fields cannot be neatly separated. The 32-volume series in constructive postmodern thought edited by process philosopher and theologian displays the range of areas in which different process philosophers work, including physics, ecology, medicine, public policy, nonviolence, politics, and psychology. One philosophical school which has historically had a close relationship with process philosophy is American. Whitehead himself thought highly of and, and acknowledged his indebtedness to them in the preface to. Charles Hartshorne (along with ) edited the collected papers of, one of the founders of pragmatism.
Noted was in turn a student of Hartshorne. Today, is one example of a philosopher who advocates both process philosophy and pragmatism. In addition, while they might not properly be called process philosophers, Whitehead has been influential in the philosophy of,,,,, and. [ ] Science [ ].
Bohm is one example of a scientist influenced by Whitehead's philosophy. Scientists of the early 20th century for whom Whitehead's work has been influential include physical chemist, biologist, and geneticists and. Dedicated his 'Explorations in Personality' to Whitehead, a contemporary at Harvard. In physics, articulated a view that might perhaps be regarded as dual to 's.
It has been severely criticized. Yutaka Tanaka suggested that the disagrees with experimental findings, and proposed that Einstein's work does not actually refute Whitehead's formulation. Whitehead's view has now been rendered obsolete, with the discovery of, phenonena observed locally that largely violate the kind of local flatness of space that Whitehead assumes. Consequently, Whitehead's cosmology must be regarded as a local approximation, and his assumption of a uniform spatio-temporal geometry, Minkowskian in particular, as an often-locally-adequate approximation.
An exact replacement of Whitehead's cosmology would need to admit a Riemannian geometry. Also, although Whitehead himself gave only secondary consideration to, his of processes has proved attractive to some physicists in that field. And are among those whose work has been influenced by Whitehead. In the 21 st century, Whiteheadian thought is still a stimulating influence: and Hank Keeton's Physics and Whitehead (2004) and Michael Epperson's Quantum Mechanics and the Philosophy of Alfred North Whitehead (2004) and Foundations of Relational Realism: A Topological Approach to Quantum Mechanics and the Philosophy of Nature (2013), aim to offer Whiteheadian approaches to.
Henning, Adam Scarfe, and 's Beyond Mechanism (2013) and 's Science Set Free (2012) are examples of Whiteheadian approaches to biology. Ecology, economy, and sustainability [ ].
Theologian, philosopher, and environmentalist founded the in with in 1973, and is often regarded as the preeminent scholar in the field of and. One of the most promising applications of Whitehead's thought in recent years has been in the area of civilization,, and. 'Because Whitehead's holistic of value lends itself so readily to an ecological point of view, many see his work as a promising alternative to the traditional worldview, providing a detailed metaphysical picture of a world constituted by a web of interdependent relations.' This work has been pioneered by, Jr., whose book Is It Too Late? A Theology of Ecology (1971) was the first single-authored book in environmental ethics. Cobb also co-authored a book with leading and entitled For the Common Good: Redirecting the Economy toward Community, the Environment, and a Sustainable Future (1989), which applied Whitehead's thought to, and received the for Ideas Improving World Order. Cobb followed this with a second book, Sustaining the Common Good: A Christian Perspective on the Global Economy (1994), which aimed to challenge 'economists' zealous faith in the great god of growth.'
Education [ ] Whitehead is widely known for his influence in. His philosophy inspired the formation of the Association for Process Philosophy of Education (APPE), which published eleven volumes of a journal titled Process Papers on and education from 1996 to 2008. Whitehead's theories on education also led to the formation of new modes of learning and new models of teaching. One such model is the ANISA model developed by Daniel C.
Jordan, which sought to address a lack of understanding of the nature of people in current education systems. As Jordan and Raymond P. Shepard put it: 'Because it has not defined the nature of man, education is in the untenable position of having to devote its energies to the development of curricula without any coherent ideas about the nature of the creature for whom they are intended.' Another model is the FEELS model developed by Xie Bangxiu and deployed successfully in China.
'FEELS' stands for five things in curriculum and education: Flexible-goals, Engaged-learner, Embodied-knowledge, Learning-through-interactions, and Supportive-teacher. It is used for understanding and evaluating educational curriculum under the assumption that the purpose of education is to 'help a person become whole.' This work is in part the product of cooperation between Chinese government organizations and the Institute for the Postmodern Development of China. Whitehead's philosophy of education has also found institutional support in Canada, where the created a Process Philosophy Research Unit and sponsored several conferences on process philosophy and education. Howard Woodhouse at the University of Saskatchewan remains a strong proponent of Whiteheadian education.
Three recent books which further develop Whitehead's philosophy of education include: Modes of Learning: Whitehead's Metaphysics and the Stages of Education (2012) by George Allan; and The Adventure of Education: Process Philosophers on Learning, Teaching, and Research (2009) by Adam Scarfe, and 'Educating for an Ecological Civilization: Interdisciplinary, Experiential, and Relational Learning' (2017) edited by Marcus Ford and Stephen Rowe. 'Beyond the Modern University: Toward a Constructive Postmodern University,' (2002) is another text that explores the importance of Whitehead's metaphysics for thinking about higher education. Business administration [ ] Whitehead has had some influence on philosophy of and.
This has led in part to a focus on identifying and investigating the effect of temporal events (as opposed to static things) within organizations through an “organization studies” discourse that accommodates a variety of 'weak' and 'strong' process perspectives from a number of philosophers. One of the leading figures having an explicitly Whiteheadian and stance towards is Mark Dibben, who works in what he calls 'applied process thought' to articulate a philosophy of management and business administration as part of a wider examination of the through the lens of. For Dibben, this allows 'a comprehensive exploration of life as perpetually active experiencing, as opposed to occasional – and thoroughly passive – happening.' Dibben has published two books on applied process thought, (2008), and (2009), as well as other papers in this vein in the fields of philosophy of management and.
Margaret Stout and Carrie M. Fast Furious 7 Mkv Download Player. Staton have also written recently on the mutual influence of Whitehead and, a pioneer in the fields of organizational theory and.
Stout and Staton see both Whitehead and Follett as sharing an that 'understands becoming as a relational process; difference as being related, yet unique; and the purpose of becoming as harmonizing difference.' This connection is further analyzed by Stout and Jeannine M.
Love in Integrative Process: Follettian Thinking from Ontology to Administration Political views [ ] Whitehead's political views sometimes appear to be without the label. He wrote: “ Now the intercourse between individuals and between social groups takes one of two forms, force or persuasion.
Is the great example of intercourse by way of persuasion.,, and governmental compulsion exemplify the reign of force. ” On the other hand, many Whitehead scholars read his work as providing a philosophical foundation for the social liberalism of the movement that was prominent throughout Whitehead's adult life. Morris wrote that '.there is good reason for claiming that Whitehead shared the social and political ideals of the new liberals.' Primary works [ ] Books written by Whitehead, listed by date of publication. • A Treatise on Universal Algebra. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1898.. Available online.
• The Axioms of Descriptive Geometry. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1907. Available online. • with., Volume I. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1910. Available online.
1 to *56 is available as a CUP paperback. • An Introduction to Mathematics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1911. Available online.
56 of the series. • with., Volume II. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1912.
Available online. • with., Volume III. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1913. Available online. • The Organization of Thought Educational and Scientific.
London: Williams & Norgate, 1917. Available online. • An Enquiry Concerning the Principles of Natural Knowledge.
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New York: Macmillan Company, 1929. Based on the 1927–28 delivered at the University of Edinburgh. The 1978 Free Press 'corrected edition' edited by and Donald W. Sherburne corrects many errors in both the British and American editions, and also provides a comprehensive index. • The Aims of Education and Other Essays. New York: Macmillan Company, 1929. • The Function of Reason.
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• Modes of Thought. New York: MacMillan Company, 1938. • 'Mathematics and the Good.' In The Philosophy of Alfred North Whitehead, edited by, 666–681.
Evanston and Chicago: Northwestern University Press, 1941. • 'Immortality.' In The Philosophy of Alfred North Whitehead, edited by, 682–700. Evanston and Chicago: Northwestern University Press, 1941. • Essays in Science and Philosophy. London: Philosophical Library, 1947.
• with Allison Heartz Johnson, ed. The Wit and Wisdom of Whitehead.
Boston: Beacon Press, 1948. In addition, the of the is currently working on a critical edition of Whitehead's writings, which is set to include notes taken by Whitehead's students during his Harvard classes, correspondence, and corrected editions of his books. Bogaard and Jason Bell, eds. The Harvard Lectures of Alfred North Whitehead, 1924-1925: Philosophical Presuppositions of Science. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2017. See also [ ] • References [ ].